Theory and Practice of Aircraft Performance

<p>Preface xix</p>
<p>Series Preface xxi</p>
<p>Road Map of the Book xxiii</p>
<p>Acknowledgements xxvii</p>
<p>Nomenclature xxxi</p>
<p>1 Introduction 1</p>
<p>1.1 Overview 1</p>
<p>1.2 Brief Historical Background 1</p>
<p>1.3 Current Aircraft Design Status 8</p>
<p>1.4 Future Trends 11</p>
<p>1.5 Airworthiness Requirements 14</p>
<p>1.6 Current Aircraft Performance Analyses Levels 16</p>
<p>1.7 Market Survey 17</p>
<p>1.8 Typical Design Process 19</p>
<p>1.9 Classroom Learning Process 23</p>
<p>1.10 Cost Implications 25</p>
<p>1.11 Units and Dimensions 26</p>
<p>1.12 Use of Semi empirical Relations and Graphs 26</p>
<p>1.13 How Do Aircraft Fly? 26</p>
<p>1.14 Anatomy of Aircraft 27</p>
<p>1.15 Aircraft Motion and Forces 30</p>
<p>References 36</p>
<p>2 Aerodynamic and Aircraft Design Considerations 37</p>
<p>2.1 Overview 37</p>
<p>2.2 Introduction 37</p>
<p>2.3 Atmosphere 39</p>
<p>2.4 Airflow Behaviour: Laminar and Turbulent 51</p>
<p>2.5 Aerofoil 56</p>
<p>2.6 Generation of Lift 64</p>
<p>2.7 Types of Stall 71</p>
<p>2.8 Comparison of Three NACA Aerofoils 72</p>
<p>2.9 High Lift Devices 73</p>
<p>2.10 Transonic Effects Area Rule 74</p>
<p>2.11 Wing Aerodynamics 76</p>
<p>2.12 Aspect Ratio Correction of 2D Aerofoil Characteristics for 3D Finite Wing 79</p>
<p>2.13 Wing Definitions 81</p>
<p>2.14 Mean Aerodynamic Chord 84</p>
<p>2.15 Compressibility Effect: Wing Sweep 86</p>
<p>2.16 Wing Stall Pattern and Wing Twist 87</p>
<p>2.17 Influence of Wing Area and Span on Aerodynamics 88</p>
<p>2.18 Empennage 92</p>
<p>2.19 Fuselage 98</p>
<p>2.20 Nacelle and Intake 100</p>
<p>2.21 Speed Brakes and Dive Brakes 106</p>
<p>References 106</p>
<p>3 Air Data Measuring Instruments, Systems and Parameters 109</p>
<p>3.1 Overview 109</p>
<p>3.2 Introduction 109</p>
<p>3.3 Aircraft Speed 110</p>
<p>3.4 Air Data Instruments 122</p>
<p>3.5 Aircraft Flight Deck (Cockpit) Layout 128</p>
<p>3.6 Aircraft Mass (Weights) and Centre of Gravity 133</p>
<p>3.7 Noise Emissions 141</p>
<p>3.8 Engine Exhaust Emissions 145</p>
<p>3.9 Aircraft Systems 146</p>
<p>3.10 Low Observable (LO) Aircraft Configuration 150</p>
<p>References 152</p>
<p>4 Equations of Motion for a Flat Stationary Earth 153</p>
<p>4.1 Overview 153</p>
<p>4.2 Introduction 154</p>
<p>4.3 Definitions of Frames of Reference (Flat Stationary E arth) and Nomenclature Used 154</p>
<p>4.4 Eulerian Angles 158</p>
<p>4.5 Simplified Equations of Motion for a Flat Stationary Earth 161</p>
<p>Reference 167</p>
<p>5 Aircraft Load 169</p>
<p>5.1 Overview 169</p>
<p>5.2 Introduction 169</p>
<p>5.3 Flight Manoeuvres 171</p>
<p>5.4 Aircraft Loads 171</p>
<p>5.5 Theory and Definitions 172</p>
<p>5.6 Limits Loads and Speeds 173</p>
<p>5.7 V n Diagram 174</p>
<p>5.8 Gust Envelope 179</p>
<p>Reference 183</p>
<p>6 Stability Considerations Affecting Aircraft Performance 185</p>
<p>6.1 Overview 185</p>
<p>6.2 Introduction 185</p>
<p>6.3 Static and Dynamic Stability 186</p>
<p>6.4 Theory 192</p>
<p>6.5 Current Statistical Trends for Horizontal and Vertical Tail Coefficients 197</p>
<p>6.6 Inherent Aircraft Motions as Characteristics of Design 198</p>
<p>6.7 Spinning 202</p>
<p>6.8 Summary of Design Considerations for Stability 203</p>
<p>References 207</p>
<p>7 Aircraft Power Plant and Integration 209</p>
<p>7.1 Overview 209</p>
<p>7.2 Background 209</p>
<p>7.3 Definitions 214</p>
<p>7.4 Air Breathing Aircraft Engine Types 215</p>
<p>7.5 Simplified Representation of Gas Turbine (Brayton/Joule) Cycle 219</p>
<p>7.6 Formulation/Theory Isentropic Case 221</p>
<p>7.7 Engine Integration to Aircraft Installation Effects 226</p>
<p>7.8 Intake/Nozzle Design 231</p>
<p>7.9 Exhaust Nozzle and Thrust Reverser 233</p>
<p>7.10 Propeller 234</p>
<p>References 246</p>
<p>8 Aircraft Power Plant Performance 247</p>
<p>8.1 Overview 247</p>
<p>8.2 Introduction 248</p>
<p>8.3 Uninstalled Turbofan Engine Performance Data Civil Aircraft 250</p>
<p>8.4 Uninstalled Turbofan Engine Performance Data Military Aircraft 254</p>
<p>8.5 Uninstalled Turboprop Engine Performance Data 255</p>
<p>8.6 Installed Engine Performance Data of Matched Engines to Coursework Aircraft 257</p>
<p>8.7 Installed Turboprop Performance Data 261</p>
<p>8.8 Piston Engine 264</p>
<p>8.9 Engine Performance Grid 267</p>
<p>8.10 Some Turbofan Data 272</p>
<p>Reference 273</p>
<p>9 Aircraft Drag 275</p>
<p>9.1 Overview 275</p>
<p>9.2 Introduction 275</p>
<p>9.3 Parasite Drag Definition 277</p>
<p>9.4 Aircraft Drag Breakdown (Subsonic) 278</p>
<p>9.5 Aircraft Drag Formulation 279</p>
<p>9.6 Aircraft Drag Estimation Methodology 281</p>
<p>9.7 Minimum Parasite Drag Estimation Methodology 281</p>
<p>9.8 Semi Empirical Relations to Estimate Aircraft Component Parasite Drag 284</p>
<p>9.9 Notes on Excrescence Drag Resulting from Surface Imperfections 295</p>
<p>9.10 Minimum Parasite Drag 296</p>
<p>9.11 CDp Estimation 296</p>
<p>9.12 Subsonic Wave Drag 296</p>
<p>9.13 Total Aircraft Drag 298</p>
<p>9.14 Low Speed Aircraft Drag at Takeoff and Landing 298</p>
<p>9.15 Propeller Driven Aircraft Drag 304</p>
<p>9.16 Military Aircraft Drag 304</p>
<p>9.17 Supersonic Drag 305</p>
<p>9.18 Coursework Example Civil Bizjet Aircraft 306</p>
<p>9.19 Classroom Example Subsonic Military Aircraft (Advanced Jet Trainer) 315</p>
<p>9.20 Classroom Example Turboprop Trainer 319</p>
<p>9.21 Classroom Example Supersonic Military Aircraft 325</p>
<p>9.22 Drag Comparison 332</p>
<p>9.23 Some Concluding Remarks and Reference Figures 334</p>
<p>References 338</p>
<p>10 Fundamentals of Mission Profile, Drag Polar and Aeroplane Grid 339</p>
<p>10.1 Overview 339</p>
<p>10.2 Introduction 340</p>
<p>10.3 Civil Aircraft Mission (Payload Range) 342</p>
<p>10.4 Military Aircraft Mission 345</p>
<p>10.5 Aircraft Flight Envelope 349</p>
<p>10.6 Understanding Drag Polar 351</p>
<p>10.7 Properties of Parabolic Drag Polar 354</p>
<p>10.8 Classwork Examples of Parabolic Drag Polar 363</p>
<p>10.9 Bizjet Actual Drag Polar 366</p>
<p>10.10 Aircraft and Engine Grid 372</p>
<p>References 378</p>
<p>11 Takeoff and Landing 379</p>
<p>11.1 Overview 379</p>
<p>11.2 Introduction 380</p>
<p>11.3 Airfield Definitions 380</p>
<p>11.4 Generalized Takeoff Equations of Motion 384</p>
<p>11.5 Friction Wheel Rolling and Braking Friction Coefficients 389</p>
<p>11.6 Civil Transport Aircraft Takeoff 391</p>
<p>11.7 Worked Example Bizjet 396</p>
<p>11.8 Takeoff Presentation 404</p>
<p>11.9 Military Aircraft Takeoff 405</p>
<p>11.10 Checking Takeoff Field Length (AJT) 406</p>
<p>11.11 Civil Transport Aircraft Landing 409</p>
<p>11.12 Landing Presentation 417</p>
<p>11.13 Approach Climb and Landing Climb 418</p>
<p>11.14 Fuel Jettisoning 418</p>
<p>References 418</p>
<p>12 Climb and Descent Performance 419</p>
<p>12.1 Overview 419</p>
<p>12.2 Introduction 420</p>
<p>12.3 Climb Performance 422</p>
<p>12.4 Other Ways to Climb (Point Performance) Civil Aircraft 428</p>
<p>12.5 Classwork Example Climb Performance (Bizjet) 435</p>
<p>12.6 Hodograph Plot 440</p>
<p>12.7 Worked Example Bizjet 443</p>
<p>12.8 Integrated Climb Performance Computational Methodology 444</p>
<p>12.9 Specific Excess Power (SEP) High Energy Climb 447</p>
<p>12.10 Descent Performance 454</p>
<p>12.11 Worked Example Descent Performance (Bizjet) 459</p>
<p>References 462</p>
<p>13 Cruise Performance and Endurance 463</p>
<p>13.1 Overview 463</p>
<p>13.2 Introduction 464</p>
<p>13.3 Equations of Motion for the Cruise Segment 466</p>
<p>13.4 Cruise Equations 466</p>
<p>13.5 Specific Range 470</p>
<p>13.6 Worked Example (Bizjet) 471</p>
<p>13.7 Endurance Equations 478</p>
<p>13.8 Options for Cruise Segment (Turbofan Only) 481</p>
<p>13.9 Initial Maximum Cruise Speed (Bizjet) 487</p>
<p>13.10 Worked Example of AJT Military Aircraft 488</p>
<p>References 489</p>
<p>14 Aircraft Mission Profile 491</p>
<p>14.1 Overview 491</p>
<p>14.2 Introduction 492</p>
<p>14.3 Payload Range Capability 493</p>
<p>14.4 The Bizjet Payload Range Capability 495</p>
<p>14.5 Endurance (Bizjet) 502</p>
<p>14.6 Effect of Wind on Aircraft Mission Performance 502</p>
<p>14.7 Engine Inoperative Situation at Climb and Cruise Drift Down Procedure 503</p>
<p>14.8 Military Missions 506</p>
<p>14.9 Flight Planning by the Operators 507</p>
<p>References 508</p>
<p>15 Manoeuvre Performance 509</p>
<p>15.1 Overview 509</p>
<p>15.2 Introduction 509</p>
<p>15.3 Aircraft Turn 510</p>
<p>15.4 Classwork Example AJT 520</p>
<p>15.5 Aerobatics Manoeuvre 522</p>
<p>15.6 Combat Manoeuvre 528</p>
<p>15.7 Discussion on Turn 530</p>
<p>References 531</p>
<p>16 Aircraft Sizing and Engine Matching 533</p>
<p>16.1 Overview 533</p>
<p>16.2 Introduction 534</p>
<p>16.3 Theory 535</p>
<p>16.4 Coursework Exercises: Civil Aircraft Design (Bizjet) 541</p>
<p>16.5 Sizing Analysis: Civil Aircraft (Bizjet) 543</p>
<p>16.6 Classroom Exercise Military Aircraft (AJT) 546</p>
<p>16.7 Sizing Analysis Military Aircraft 551</p>
<p>16.8 Aircraft Sizing Studies and Sensitivity Analyses 553</p>
<p>16.9 Discussion 554</p>
<p>References 558</p>
<p>17 Operating Costs 559</p>
<p>17.1 Overview 559</p>
<p>17.2 Introduction 560</p>
<p>17.3 Aircraft Cost and Operational Cost 561</p>
<p>17.4 Aircraft Direct Operating Cost (DOC) 567</p>
<p>17.5 Aircraft Performance Management (APM) 574</p>
<p>References 577</p>
<p>18 Miscellaneous Considerations 579</p>
<p>18.1 Overview 579</p>
<p>18.2 Introduction 579</p>
<p>18.3 History of the FAA 580</p>
<p>18.4 Flight Test 583</p>
<p>18.5 Contribution of the Ground Effect on Takeoff 585</p>
<p>18.6 Flying in Adverse Environments 586</p>
<p>18.7 Bird Strikes 590</p>
<p>18.8 Military Aircraft Flying Hazards and Survivability 591</p>
<p>18.9 Relevant Civil Aircraft Statistics 591</p>
<p>18.10 Extended Twin Engine Operation (ETOP) 597</p>
<p>18.11 Flight and Human Physiology 598</p>
<p>References 599</p>
<p>Appendices</p>
<p>Appendix A Conversions 601</p>
<p>Appendix B International Standard Atmosphere Table 605</p>
<p>Appendix C Fundamental Equations 609</p>
<p>Appendix D Airbus 320 Class Case Study 615</p>
<p>Appendix E Problem Sets 627</p>
<p>Appendix F Aerofoil Data 647</p>
<p>Index 655</p>